Diuretic and Toxicity Studies of Methanol Stem Bark Extract of Spondias Mombin Linn (Anacardiaceae) in Rats.
ABSTRACT
mombin belongs to the Anacardiaceae. All parts of the tree are reported to be medicinally useful. The juice is as a diuretic and .
The main aim of the study is to determine the diuretic activity and toxicity of methanol stem bark extract of Spondias mombin. The plant was collected, authenticated, and studied in the Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
Adult albino rats of Wistar strain of either sex were used for the experiments. Phytochemical screening of the methanolic extract of stem bark of Spondias mombin was carried out according to the methods described by Trease and Evans.
The oral median lethal dose (LD50) of the extract was determined in rats according to Lorke’s method. The sub-chronic study was carried out in accordance with WHO and OECD 407 guidelines.
Twenty-four adult rats (Wistar strain) were randomly divided into four groups of six rats each. The rats in group I were administered with normal saline orally and served as the control.
Groups II-IV were administered 250mg/kg, 500mg/kg, and 750mg/kg of the extract daily for twenty-eight days. At the end of the study, the animals were euthanized and relative organ weight ratio (ROW) was determined.
Histological examination of the heart, liver, and kidneys was also performed. Complete blood count, liver and kidney function tests were also determined.
For diuretic screening, test animals were placed into metabolic cages with the total withdrawal of food and water for 12 hours. They were then randomly divided into five groups of five animals each. Each animal was rehydrated with 25 ml/kg of normal saline just before the experiment.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….i
DEDICATION………………………………………………………………………………………………………………ii
DECLARATION………………………………………………………………………………………………………….iii
CERTIFICATION ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ………………………………………………………………………………………………..v
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………………………………………………….vii
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………………………………………..xi
LIST OF PLATES ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….xii
LIST OF APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………………………………… xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………………………………………………….. xv
CHAPTER ONE…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………………………………….1
1.1 Statement of Research Problems ………………………………………………………………………………5
1.2 Justification……………………………………………………………………………………………………………5
1.3 Research Hypothesis……………………………………………………………………………………………….7
1.4 Aim: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..7
1.5 Specific Objectives: ………………………………………………………………………………………………..7
CHAPTER TWO………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….8
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ………………………………………………………………………………………..8
2.1 Diuretics………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..8
2.1.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………….8
2.1.3 Clinical uses and side effects…………………………………………………………………………. 13
2.1.4 Time course of diuresis…………………………………………………………………………………. 16
2.1.5 Preclinical studies on plants that have been shown to have diuretic properties……………. 17
2.2 Phytochemical Screening……………………………………………………………………………………… 18
2.3 Toxicology………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 18
2.3.1 Importance of dose-response relationship in toxicology ………………………………………….. 19
2.3.2 Routes of exposure to toxic substances………………………………………………………………….. 20
2.3.3 Some target organs in toxicology …………………………………………………………………… 21
2.3.4 Preclinical toxicology studies………………………………………………………………………… 25
2.4 Traditional Medicine……………………………………………………………………………………………. 27
2.4.1 Safety of traditional medicine………………………………………………………………………… 28
2.5 The plant; Spondias mombin…………………………………………………………………………………. 30
2.5.1 Ethnomedical uses ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 31
2.5.2 Nonmedical uses…………………………………………………………………………………………. 31
CHAPTER THREE …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 33
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS…………………………………………………………………………… 33
3.1 Plant Collection and Authentication ………………………………………………………………………. 33
3.2 Preparation of the Extract …………………………………………………………………………………….. 33
3.3 Experimental Animals …………………………………………………………………………………………. 33
3.4 Materials……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 34
3.5 Phytochemical Screening of the methanol extract of Spondias mombin ……………………… 34
3.5.1 Test for cardiac glycosides…………………………………………………………………………….. 34
3.5.2 Test for tannins ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 35
3.5.3 Test for saponins………………………………………………………………………………………….. 35
3.5.4 Test for flavonoids……………………………………………………………………………………….. 35
3.5.6 Test for anthraquinones…………………………………………………………………………………. 36
3.6 Acute toxicity studies: …………………………………………………………………………………………. 37
3.7 Subchronic toxicity study ……………………………………………………………………………………. 38
3.7.1 Calculation of relative organ weight ratio (ROW)…………………………………………….. 38
3.7.2 Biochemical studies……………………………………………………………………………………… 38
3.7.3 Haematological studies…………………………………………………………………………………. 39
3.7.4 Histopathological Study………………………………………………………………………………… 39
3.8 Screening of Diuretic Activity………………………………………………………………………………. 39
3.9 Data analysis………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 40
CHAPTER FOUR……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 41
4.0 RESULTS………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 41
4.1 Phytochemical Screening……………………………………………………………………………………… 41
4.2 Toxicity studies…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 43
4.2.1 Acute toxicity studies (LD50 determination)…………………………………………………….. 43
4.2.2 Subchronic toxicity studies…………………………………………………………………………… 44
4.2.3: Diuretic Screening …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 68
CHAPTER FIVE ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 78
5.0 DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 78
CHAPTER SIX…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 85
6.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS…………………………………. 85
6.1 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 85
6.2 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 85
6.3 Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 86
REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 87
INTRODUCTION
Plants have fed the world and cured its ills since time immemorial. Ecology has shown us the intense dependence of man on plants for his basic needs of food, shelter, clothing, and even medicine. The use of plants for curing and healing is as old as man himself.
Therefore, vast knowledge of medicinal plants has accumulated, but most of the knowledge only exists as verbal tradition and only a fraction has gotten scientific validation to date(Osai, 1998). A plant becomes a medicinal plant only when its biological activity has been ethnobotanically reported or scientifically established (Elujoba, 1997).
Since 1978 the World Health Organisation (WHO) commenced the evolution of scientific confirmation of the medicinal effect of herbs. World Health Organization has estimated that over 75% of the world’s population relies on plant-derived medicines,
usually obtained from traditional healers, for basic healthcare needs (Patel et al., 2009). It is estimated that about 25% of all modern medicines are directly or indirectly derived from plants (Craig et al., 1997).
Diuretics are a class of drugs that increases the rate of urine formation. They are used in many clinical conditions including edematous disorders and hypertension. Historically, the classification of diuretics has been made using multiple ideas like a place of action (loop diuretics),
efficiency (high ceiling diuretics), chemical structure (thiazide diuretics), the similarity of action to other diuretics (diuretics similar to thiazides), the effects upon the potassium excretion (potassium-sparing diuretic), and others (Florez, 2003; Rang et al., 2008).
REFERENCES
Abdallah, J. G., Schrier, R. W., Edelstein, C. (2001). Loop diuretic infusion increases
thiazide-sensitive Na(+)/Cl(-)-cotransporter abundance: role of aldosterone. Journal
of American Society of Nephrology; 12: pp. 1335.
Abeywickrama,K. R. W., Ratnasooriya, W. D., Amarakoon, A. M. T. (2010). Oral diuretic
activity of hot water infusion of Sri Lankan black tea (Camellia sinensis L.) in rats
Pharmacognosy magazine; 6(24): pp. 271-277.
Agunu, A., Abdurahman, E.M., Andrew, G.O., Muhammed, Z.,(2005): Diuretic activity of
the stem-bark extracts of Steganotaenia araliacea hochst [Apiaceae].Journal of
Ethnopharmacology; 96(3): pp. 471-475.
Aiyeloja, A. A. and Bello O.A. (2006). “Ethnobotanical potentials of common herbs in
Nigeria: A case study of Enugu state” .Academic Journals; 1 (1): pp.16–22.
Amy, C. B. (2002)Potentially life-threatening herbs: Reported cases in MEDLINE of liver
toxicity, renal toxicity, cardiotoxicity, cancer, and death. Poster Presentation
#489.29 Experimental Biology New Orleans, April 20-24.
Aviram, A., Pfau, A., Czaczkes, J. W., Ullmann, T. D. (1967). Hyperosmolality with
hyponatremia, caused by inappropriate administration of mannitol.American Journal
of Medicine; 42: pp. 648.
Ayoka, A.O., Akomolafe, R.O., Akinsomisoye, O.S., Ukponmwan, O. E., (2008).Medicinal
and Economic Value of Spondias mombin.African Journal of Biomedical Research,
11(2).pp. 129-136.
Bailey, S. A., Zidell, R. H., Perry, R. W. (2004).Relationships Between OrganWeight and
Body/BrainWeight in the Rat: What Is the Best Analytical Endpoint? Toxicologic
Pathology. 32(4): pp. 448–466
Batlle, D. C., von Riotte, A. B., Gaviria, M., Grupp M. (1985).Amelioration of polyuria by
amiloride in patients receiving long-term lithium therapy.NewEngland Journal of
Medicine; 312: pp. 408.
Bronner, F. (1989). Renal calcium transport: mechanisms and regulation-an overview.
American Journal of Physiology; 257: pp. 707.
Carr, M. C., Prien, E. L.Jr, Babayan, R. K. (1990). Triamterene nephrolithiasis: renewed
attention is warranted. Journal of Urology; 144: pp.1339.
StudentsandScholarship Team.